SoftChest

Robert Irving Burns Property Consultants

2006-11-22T10:15:00.000-08:00

Robert Irving Burns has been established for over 40 years and is an independent partnership, who specialise in a full range of property services. These include commercial property
and commercial offices as well as property to let london. Whilst my business partner and I were looking for Offices, we found Rib’s expertise invaluable.

Haber, Fritz

2005-04-04T17:42:00.000-07:00

Morris Goran, The Story of Fritz Haber (1967), contains an exhaustive bibliography of writings by and relating to Haber.

Benhadugah, 'abd Al-hamid

2005-04-04T10:02:00.000-07:00

Algerian writer who was considered the father of modern Arabic literature in Algeria; among the concerns he addressed in such novels as Rih al-janub (1971; "The Wind from the South") were the limitations that societal tradition imposes on young people as they strive for progress and the struggle of women for emancipation (b. Jan. 9, 1925--d. Oct. 20/21, 1996).

Ashmolean Museum Of Art And Archaeology

2005-04-02T18:30:00.000-08:00

One of the four museums of the University of Oxford and the oldest public museum of art, archaeology, and natural history in Great Britain. It was established to house collections donated to the university in 1677 by Elias Ashmole (1617–92), an antiquarian who had inherited the bulk of the collections from a friend, John Tradescant (1608–62). The museum was opened to the public in 1683 in a building

Jabal Shammar

2005-04-01T01:04:00.000-08:00

Mountainous area, northwestern Saudi Arabia, bounded by the regions of Hejaz on the west and Ash-Sharqiyah on the east. The principal features of the region are the two great mountain ranges of Aja' (granites) and Salma (basalts) and the immense rolling sand dunes of An-Nafud. The oasis town of Ha'il is situated on the southern flank of the Aja', while an older capital, Fayd, lies in the

Intendente

2005-03-30T10:38:00.000-08:00

Royal official appointed by the 18th-century kings of the Bourbon dynasty in Spain. Modeled after the French intendants, the intendentes were to serve as instruments of royal centralization and administrative reform but were frequently resisted as conflicting with local privileges. In the Spanish colonies the system was imposed in Cuba (1765) after the brief British

Arabia, History Of, Yemen

2005-03-30T02:35:00.000-08:00

In 1839 the British took Aden, ruling it and the island of Socotra (at the entrance to the Gulf of Aden) from India; the port of Aden became valuable as a coaling station. In 1849 the Ottoman Turks occupied the Yemeni Tihamah but could not hold San'a' in the interior until 1872. They were never able to break the resistance of the Zaydi tribes completely and were forced to an accommodation with

Arabic Literary Renaissance

2005-03-29T18:40:00.000-08:00

After the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt (1798) and the subsequent establishment of an autonomous and Western-minded ruling dynasty there, many Syrian and Lebanese writers sought out the freer environment of Egypt, making it

Utrecht

2005-03-29T01:39:00.000-08:00

The site of successive Roman, Frisian, and Frankish fortresses, Utrecht became

Ibisbill

2005-03-27T04:42:00.000-08:00

(Ibidorhyncha struthersii), Asian bird named for its long, red, down-curved bill (similar to that of an ibis), which it uses to probe for food under stones along streams and ponds. Rather heavyset birds about 40 centimetres (16 inches) long, ibisbills have shorter legs than their familial relatives the avocets and stilts (family Recurvirostridae,

Graziani, Rodolfo, Marquess Di Neghelli

2005-03-26T21:54:00.000-08:00

After service in Eritrea and Libya before World War I and in Macedonia and Tripolitania subsequently, Graziani became commander in chief of Italian forces in Libya (1930–34), governor of Italian Somaliland (1935–36), viceroy of Ethiopia (1936–37), and honorary governor of Italian East Africa

R.j. Reynolds Tobacco Holdings

2005-03-25T15:21:00.000-08:00

American manufacturer of tobacco products. The origins of the R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company date to the post-Civil War era, when Richard Joshua Reynolds (1850–1918) began trading in tobacco, first in his native Virginia and then in Winston, North Carolina, where in 1875 he established his first plug factory. In 1899 the R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company was incorporated, with Reynolds as president.

Cymbidium

2005-03-24T01:23:00.000-08:00

Cymbidium species grow in soil or on other plants and are popular as florists' plants and ornamentals. Most have short pseudobulbs

Cymbidium

2005-03-23T13:44:00.000-08:00

Formerly (1969–73) National Association for the Repeal of Abortion Laws American organization, founded in 1969 to centralize state abortion-rights efforts and continuing its mission thereafter to protect and promote reproductive freedom. The organization consists of three related entities: NARAL Inc., a nonprofit organization that focuses on defending abortion rights and on making abortions less necessary; NARAL-PAC, a registered

Spooner, John (coit)

2005-03-22T15:41:00.000-08:00

Spooner moved to Wisconsin as a youth. After service in the Union Army during the Civil War, he was admitted to the bar (1867). He began a law practice at Hudson, Wis., and eventually became best known in legal circles as counsel for railroad interests.

Cadmium Poisoning

2005-03-21T19:02:00.000-08:00

Toxic effects of cadmium or its compounds on body tissues and functions. Poisoning may result from the ingestion of an acid food or drink prepared in a cadmium-lined vessel (e.g., lemonade served from cadmium-plated cans). Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and prostration usually occur within 15 minutes after ingestion and subside within 24 hours. Inhalation of cadmium fumes in

Biblical Literature, The history of canonization

2005-03-20T03:19:00.000-08:00

Because no explicit or reliable traditions concerning the criteria of canonicity, the canonizing authorities, the periods in which they lived, or the procedure adopted have been preserved, no more than a plausible reconstruction of the successive stages involved can be provided. First, it must be observed that sanctity and canonization are not synonymous terms.

Constable, Archibald

2005-03-19T19:51:00.000-08:00

At the age of 14 Constable was apprenticed to an Edinburgh bookseller, Peter Hill; after six years he left to open his own bookstore. He began to publish theological and political pamphlets, and in 1802 Sydney Smith

Alexis

2005-03-18T17:41:00.000-08:00

Alexis came from Thurii but apparently lived most of his long life in Athens; he was said to have been Menander's uncle. According to Plutarch, he lived to the age of 106 and died on the stage while being crowned. Alexis is

Loyalist

2005-03-18T14:19:00.000-08:00

Also called Tory colonist loyal to Great Britain during the American Revolution. Loyalists constituted about one-third of the population of the American colonies during that conflict. They were not confined to any particular group or class, but their numbers were strongest among the following groups: officeholders and others who served the British crown and had a vested interest

Papacy

2005-03-16T17:54:00.000-08:00

The office and jurisdiction of the bishop of Rome, or the pope (Latin: papa, from the Greek pappas, “father”), who presides over the central government of the Roman Catholic church, the largest of the three major branches of Christianity. The term pope was originally applied to all the bishops in the West and also used to describe the patriarch of Alexandria, who still retains

Ashe, Arthur Robert, Jr.

2005-03-16T01:19:00.000-08:00

U.S. tennis player and social activist (b. July 10, 1943, Richmond, Va.--d. Feb. 6, 1993, New York, N.Y.), captured centre court when he won the men's singles title at the debut of the U.S. Open championship in 1968, becoming the first African-American man to win a Grand Slam event, one of the four major tournaments of the sport. He followed this with men's singles titles at the Australian Open in 1970 and at the All-England

Fly

2005-03-15T19:20:00.000-08:00

Any of several thousand species of insects belonging to the order Diptera and characterized by the use of only one pair of wings for flight and the reduction of the second pair of wings to knobs (called halteres) used for balance. The term fly is commonly used for almost any small flying insect. In entomology, however, the name refers specifically to the approximately

Fudo Myo-o

2005-03-14T11:00:00.000-08:00

In Japanese Buddhist mythology, the fierce form of the Buddha Vairocana, and the most important of the Myo-o class of deities. See Myo-o.

Beastie Boys, The

2005-03-14T05:18:00.000-08:00

American hip-hop and rock group, the first white rap performers to gain a substantial following; as such, they were largely responsible for the growth of rap's mainstream audience. The principal members were MCA (byname of Adam Yauch; b. August 5, 1964, New York, New York, U.S.), Mike D (byname of Mike Diamond; b. November 20, 1966, New York), and King AdRock (byname of Adam Horovitz; b. October 31, 1966, New

Ka

2005-03-13T23:03:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Koi, in ancient Egyptian religion, with ba and akh, a principal aspect of the soul of a human being or of a god. The exact significance of ka remains a matter of controversy, chiefly for lack of an Egyptian definition; the usual translation “double” is incorrect. Written by a hieroglyph of uplifted arms, it seemed originally to have designated the protecting divine spirit of

X-ray Source

2005-03-13T20:13:00.000-08:00

Advances in instrumentation and improved observational techniques have

Switzerland, Industrialization

2005-03-13T00:00:00.000-08:00

The 17th and 18th centuries were periods of peace and rising prosperity. Industry, which had existed in certain Swiss communities as far back as the 14th century, expanded, setting the foundation for future growth and diversification. Swiss neutrality during the Thirty Years' War was beneficial to the economy. The influx of refugees was particularly important in rehabilitating

Alleyn, Edward

2005-03-11T23:31:00.000-08:00

One of the greatest actors of the Elizabethan stage and founder of Dulwich College, London. Rivaled only by Richard Burbage, Alleyn won the outspoken admiration of such authors as Ben Jonson and Thomas Nashe for his interpretations of Christopher Marlowe's Tamburlaine, Doctor Faustus, and The Jew of Malta and of Robert Greene's Orlando

Quechuan Languages

2005-03-10T20:30:00.000-08:00

The languages of the former Inca Empire in South America and the principal native languages of the central Andes today. According to archaeological and historical evidence, the original languages were probably spoken in a small area in the southern Peruvian highlands until about 1450; after that their geographical range was rapidly enlarged by the Inca conquests.

Dandarah

2005-03-10T05:54:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Dendera agricultural town on the west bank of the Nile, in Qina muhafazah (governorate), Upper Egypt. The modern town is built on the ancient site of Ta-ynt-netert (She of the Divine Pillar), or Tentyra. It was the capital of the sixth nome (province) of pharaonic Upper Egypt and was dedicated to the sky and fertility goddess Hathor. Her temple is one of the best preserved in Egypt. The present

Earth, Measurement of the field

2005-03-09T23:30:00.000-08:00

Magnetic fields can be measured in various ways. The simplest measurement technique still employed today involves the use of the compass, a device consisting of a permanently magnetized needle that is balanced to pivot in the horizontal plane. In the presence of a magnetic field and in the absence of gravity, a magnetized needle aligns itself exactly along the

Augier, émile

2005-03-09T19:20:00.000-08:00

Augier was an unbending moralist, and all of his plays are to some extent didactic in purpose. His verse play Gabrielle (1849) attacks the

Loranthaceae

2005-03-07T20:21:00.000-08:00

One of the mistletoe families of the sandalwood order (Santalales), having approximately 65 genera and about 850 species of parasitic flowering trees or shrubs. Some authorities also consider the 11 genera and about 450 species of the family Viscaceae, including the commonly known mistletoes of the genera Arceuthobium and Phoradendron in North America and of the genera

Kahanamoku, Duke Paoa

2005-03-07T10:02:00.000-08:00

Kahanamoku set

Buzau Pass

2005-03-06T22:35:00.000-08:00

Romanian Pasul Buzau pass connecting Brasov with Buzau, southeastern Romania, over the Buzau Mountains, in the Eastern Carpathians. It follows the valley of the Buzau River for most of its distance. A road crosses the pass, and there are short, nonconnecting rail branches from Brasov and Buzau.

Mindaugas

2005-03-05T06:53:00.000-08:00

Mindaugas successfully asserted himself over other leading Lithuanian nobles and tribal chiefs, including his brother and his nephews, in 1236. The state thus formed under his leadership included Lithuania proper, Samogitia, and much of

Nizhnekamsk

2005-03-04T22:29:00.000-08:00

City, Tatarstan, western Russia. It lies along the left bank of the Kama River, just southwest of Naberezhnye Chelny. It is an important petrochemical centre. Its synthetic-rubber plant, intended to become one of the world's largest, began operation in 1970. It also has a large tire plant and produces plastics. An oil refinery began operation there in 1979. Pop. (1995 est.) 209,500.

World War I, The final offensive on the Western Front

2005-03-04T05:33:00.000-08:00

It was eventually agreed among the Allied commanders that Pershing's American troops should advance across the difficult terrain of the Argonne Forest, so that the combined Allied offensive would consist of converging attacks against the whole German position west of a line drawn from Ypres to Verdun. Thus, the Americans from the front northwest of Verdun and

Argolís

2005-03-03T16:40:00.000-08:00

Nomós (department), northeastern Peloponnese, southern Greece. It is a narrow, mountainous peninsula projecting eastward into the Aegean Sea between the Saronic Gulf, (to the northeast) and the Gulf of Argolis (to the southwest). Bordered on the north by Kórinthos (Corinth) and on the west by the mountains of Arcadia, it has been inhabited since Neolithic times. A limestone

Beadle, George Wells

2005-03-02T08:19:00.000-08:00

After earning his doctorate in genetics from Cornell University (1931), Beadle went to the laboratory of

Zaramo

2005-03-02T02:03:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Dzalamo , or Saramo a people who reside in the area surrounding Dar es-Salaam, Tanzania, and comprise the major ethnic component in the city. The Zaramo are considered to be part of the cluster of Swahili peoples on the coast of East Africa who have incorporated elements from many diverse ethnic backgrounds but who are unified in the Islamic faith and in the use of the Swahili

Vacuole

2005-03-01T22:56:00.000-08:00

In biology, a space within a cell that is empty of cytoplasm, lined with a membrane, and filled with fluid. Especially in protozoa, vacuoles are cytoplasmic organs (organelles), performing functions such as storage, ingestion, digestion, excretion, and expulsion of excess water. The large central vacuoles often found in plant cells enable them to attain a large size without

Gammexane

2005-02-28T10:56:00.000-08:00

Trade name for an insecticide composed of the most toxic of the isomeric forms of benzene hexachloride (q.v.).

Shadhiliyah

2005-02-28T02:28:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Shaziliyah, widespread brotherhood of Muslim mystics (Sufis), founded on the teachings of Abu al-Hasan ash-Shadhili (d. 1258) in Alexandria. Shadhili teachings stress five points: fear of God, living the sunna (practices) of the Prophet, disdain of mankind, fatalism, and turning to God in times of happiness and distress. The order, which spread throughout North Africa and the Sudan and into Arabia, was

Aleksandrovsk-sakhalinsky

2005-02-27T09:08:00.000-08:00

City, Sakhalin oblast (province), far-eastern Russia, on the western coast of Sakhalin Island. It was founded in 1881 as a centre for penal settlements. In 1890 the writer Anton Chekhov lived there while gathering material about convict life for his book Ostrov Sakhalin (“Sakhalin Island”). It became a city in 1926 and from 1932 to 1947 was the centre of an oblast. Pop. (1991 est.) 19,600.

Levitt, Helen

2005-02-26T17:47:00.000-08:00

Levitt began her career in photography at age 18 working in a portrait studio in the Bronx. After seeing the works of French photographer Henri-Cartier Bresson, she was inspired to purchase a 35-mm Leica camera and began to scour the poor

Furniture, Mirrors

2005-02-25T06:36:00.000-08:00

The use of mirror glass in furnishings arose during the 17th century. The discoloration of the melted glass because of silvering and, not least, the prohibitive cost and difficulty of manufacturing mirror glass of considerable size restricted the possibilities of large-scale application. The mirror gallery at Versailles was thus an outstanding technical achievement

Cloister

2005-02-24T21:42:00.000-08:00

Quadrilateral enclosure surrounded by covered walkways, and usually attached to a monastic or cathedral church and sometimes to a college. The term used in a narrow sense also applies to the walkways or alleys themselves (the central area being the cloister garth), in a general sense to the houses of religious orders, and in a generic sense to places of retreat for

Resita

2005-02-24T01:49:00.000-08:00

City, capital of Caras-Severin judet (county), southwestern Romania, near the Yugoslavian border. In a coal- and metal-mining region, it is a long-established metalworking centre. After World War II the ironworks and steelworks of Resita were modernized, and there are several associated heavy-engineering works and a factory producing diesel engines for railway locomotives.

Kuwait

2005-02-23T16:42:00.000-08:00

The dismissal of the Kuwaiti National Assembly in May 1999 by Emir Sheikh Jabir al-Ahmad al-Jabir as-Sabah was a milestone event. Unlike two prior dismissals, this one was carried out constitutionally. Elections were held in early July, and a new legislature was installed later that month. Nearly two-thirds of the elected legislators ran on antigovernment platforms that

Cohens V. Virginia

2005-02-23T06:11:00.000-08:00

(1821), U.S. Supreme Court case in which the court reaffirmed its right to review all state court judgments in cases arising under the federal Constitution or a law of the United States. The Judiciary Act of 1789 provided for mandatory Supreme Court review of the final judgments of the highest court of any state in cases “where is drawn in question the validity of a treaty or statute

Water

2005-02-22T10:17:00.000-08:00

A substance composed of the chemical elements hydrogen and oxygen and existing in gaseous, liquid, and solid states. Water is one of the most plentiful and essential of compounds. It is vital to life, participating in virtually every process that occurs in plants and animals. Although the molecules of water are simple in structure (H2O), the physical and chemical properties

'abduh, Muhammad

2005-02-21T21:41:00.000-08:00

Religious scholar, jurist, and liberal reformer, who led the late 19th-century movement in Egypt and other Muslim countries to revitalize Islamic teachings and institutions in the modern world. As mufti (Islamic legal counsellor) for Egypt (from 1899), he effected reforms in Islamic law, administration, and higher education and, although

Lower Vascular Plant

2005-02-21T03:13:00.000-08:00

Formerly pteridophyte, also called vascular cryptogam, any of the spore-bearing vascular plants, including the ferns, club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts, horsetails, and whisk ferns. Once considered of the same evolutionary line, these plants were formerly placed in the single group Pteridophyta and were known as the ferns and fern allies. Although modern studies have shown that the plants are not in fact related, these

Sesostris Iii

2005-02-20T20:38:00.000-08:00

During the reigns of his predecessors, the provincial nobles of Middle Egypt had enhanced their power through royal favours and intermarriage with the families of neighbouring potentates. Around the

Tiffany, Charles Lewis

2005-02-19T01:34:00.000-08:00

Tiffany went to New York City in 1837 and with John B. Young opened a stationery and fancy-goods store, which soon expanded to offer jewelry and silverware as well. It became Tiffany, Young, & Ellis in 1841; in 1848 the firm began to manufacture jewelry, and in 1850 they

Polytheism, Functional deities

2005-02-18T02:52:00.000-08:00

In addition to the various forces operating in nature, various social and other functions are divinized. Thus, the god Brahma in the Vedic tradition, besides being creator, contains and expresses in personal form the power implicit in the Brahmin class. Again, there are gods of healing, such as Asclepius in Greece, and of seafaring, agriculture, and so on. The most elaborate

Hisdai Ibn Shaprut

2005-02-17T19:33:00.000-08:00

After becoming court physician to the powerful Umayyad caliph 'Abd ar-Rahman III, Hisdai gradually gained eminence in the Arab world, acting as

Guyana, Resources

2005-02-17T07:50:00.000-08:00

The most important mineral resource is the extensive bauxite deposits between the Demerara and Berbice rivers. There are also significant deposits of manganese at Matthews Ridge in the northwest, about 30 miles east of the Venezuelan frontier. Diamonds occur in the Mazaruni and other rivers of the Pacaraima Mountains. Gold is found in both alluvial and subsurface

Biblical Literature, The Babylonian Exile and the restoration

2005-02-17T00:27:00.000-08:00

The Babylonian Exile (586–538) marks an epochal dividing point in Old Testament history, standing between what were subsequently to be designated the pre-exilic and post-exilic eras. The Judahite community in Babylonia was, on the whole, more Yahwist in religion than ever, following the Mosaic Law, emphasizing and redefining such distinctive elements as circumcision and

Teschenite

2005-02-15T05:37:00.000-08:00

Coarse- to fine-grained, rather dark-coloured, intrusive igneous rock that occurs in sills (tabular bodies inserted while molten between other rocks), dikes (tabular bodies injected in fissures), and irregular masses and is always altered to some extent. It consists primarily of plagioclase feldspar, analcime, and titaniferous augite, with barkevikite, nepheline,

Alberdi, Juan Bautista

2005-02-14T23:41:00.000-08:00

As an opponent of the dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas, Alberdi went into exile in 1838, studying law in Uruguay and also living in Chile and in Europe. After the overthrow of Rosas in 1852, Alberdi wrote

Osler, Sir William, Baronet

2005-02-14T13:02:00.000-08:00

Canadian physician and professor of medicine who practiced and taught in Canada, the United States, and Great Britain and whose book The Principles and Practice of Medicine (1892) was a leading textbook. Osler played a key role in transforming the organization and curriculum of medical education, emphasizing

Alembert, Jean Le Rond D'

2005-02-13T16:56:00.000-08:00

Meanwhile, d'Alembert began an active social life and frequented well-known salons, where he acquired a considerable reputation as a witty conversationalist and mimic. Like his fellow Philosophes—those thinkers, writers, and scientists who believed in the sovereignty of reason and nature (as opposed to authority and revelation) and rebelled against old dogmas

Tura, Cosimo

2005-02-13T02:00:00.000-08:00

Tura was court artist at the celebrated Renaissance court of the Este dukes at Ferrara and served successively dukes Borso and Ercole I. He was probably trained in Francesco Squarcione's workshop in Padua and was influenced

Luzon

2005-02-11T03:54:00.000-08:00

Xenolith

2005-02-10T19:57:00.000-08:00

Rock fragment within an intrusive igneous body that is unrelated to the igneous body itself. Xenoliths, which represent pieces of older rock incorporated into the magma while it was still fluid, may be located near their original positions of detachment or may have settled deep into the intrusion, if their density is greater. Xenoliths can be contrasted with autoliths

Mellencamp, John

2005-02-10T11:20:00.000-08:00

Growing up in southern Indiana—with which he is strongly identified—Mellencamp began playing in rock bands as a teenager. His first two albums, released in the late 1970s, disappeared without

Tapestry, Pre-Columbian Americas

2005-02-08T13:21:00.000-08:00

The most skilled weaving in pre-Columbian America was achieved by the Andean Indian cultures of ancient Peru. The origins of tapestry weaving among these peoples are believed to date as early as the beginnings of the Christian Era. By the 6th and 7th centuries the technique of tapestry weaving was established, and a large number of pieces in this medium have survived,

Aide-de-camp

2005-02-08T02:48:00.000-08:00

(French: “camp assistant”), an officer on the personal staff of a general, admiral, or other high-ranking commander who acts as his confidential secretary in routine matters. On Napoleon's staff such officers were frequently of high military qualifications and acted both as his “eyes” and as interpreters of his mind to subordinate commanders, even on occasion exercising

Beja

2005-02-07T06:15:00.000-08:00

City, capital, and concelho (township), Beja distrito (“district”), southern Portugal, southeast of Lisbon. According to legend, Beja was founded by Ulysses, and it was named Pax Julia by Julius Caesar in 48 BC to commemorate the peace treaty signed in Beja by the Romans and Lusitanians. The city is partly enclosed by walls of Roman origin with two Roman gateways. Afonso I captured

Nahuel Huapí National Park

2005-02-06T13:14:00.000-08:00

Spanish Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapí, national park in Río Negro and Neuquén provinces, southwestern Argentina; it encompasses Lake Nahuel Huapí in the Andes adjacent to the Chilean border. It originated as a reserve in 1903 with a private donation of 18,500 acres (7,500 hectares). It became Argentina's first national park in 1934 and has an area of 2,927 square miles (7,581 square km). The park and adjacent nature reserve include a region

Aide-de-camp

2005-02-06T00:03:00.000-08:00

Small, lightly built predatory or omnivorous dinosaur that brooded its eggs in a manner similar to birds. Found as fossils in deposits from the Late Cretaceous Period (99 million to 65 million years ago) of eastern Asia and North America, Oviraptor was about 1.8 metres (6 feet) long and walked on two long, well-developed hind limbs. The forelimbs were long

Wildgans, Anton

2005-02-05T19:25:00.000-08:00

The son of a judge, Wildgans became a lawyer but soon turned to writing. His childhood had been marred by his relations with his stepmother. His early poems, among which was the collection Herbstfr

Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan

2005-02-05T03:19:00.000-08:00

Chandrasekhar was the nephew of Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, who won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930. Chandrasekhar

Biblical Literature, Baruch

2005-02-05T00:49:00.000-08:00

The apocryphon of Baruch, which is extant in Greek and was included in the Septuagint, is attributed to Baruch, secretary to the Old Testament prophet Jeremiah (7th–6th century BCE). It was Baruch who read Jeremiah's letter to the exiles in Babylon. After hearing his words, the Jews repented and confessed their sins. The first part of the book of Baruch (1:1–3, 8), containing a confession

Earth

2005-02-03T03:31:00.000-08:00

The basic structure and composition of the Earth's interior have been known since the mid-20th century. In a landmark paper published in 1952, the American geophysicist Francis Birch described the constitution of the planetary interior based on a broad array of seismological, experimental, and geochemical observations. Although there have been numerous advances in

Poland, History Of, The Saxons

2005-02-03T02:41:00.000-08:00

The “Saxon Era” lasted for more than 60 years and marked the lowest point in Polish history. Research since the 1980s has somewhat corrected the largely negative picture of Augustus II and Augustus III by stressing the context in which they operated: anarchic political life dominated by factions of struggling oligarchs and open to meddling by the neighbouring powers.

Giurgiu

2005-02-02T13:27:00.000-08:00

Judet (county), southeastern Romania, occupying an area of 1,471 square miles (3,810 square km) bounded on the south by the Danube River and Bulgaria. The county, consisting mostly of lowlands, was formed in 1981 from a portion of Ilfov district. Besides the eastward-flowing Danube, the county is also drained southward by the Arges and Dimobovita rivers. At the junction of the Câlnistea and

Masson, André

2005-01-31T16:44:00.000-08:00

Masson studied painting in Brussels and then in Paris. He fought in World War I and was severely wounded. He joined the emergent Surrealist group in the mid-1920s after one of his paintings had attracted the attention of the movement's leader, André Breton. Masson soon became the foremost

Standard Oil Company And Trust

2005-01-31T04:09:00.000-08:00

The company's origins date to 1863, when Rockefeller joined Maurice B. Clark and Samuel Andrews in a Cleveland refining business; in 1865 Rockefeller bought

Caitanya Sect

2005-01-31T00:59:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Chaitanya intensely emotional form of Hinduism that has flourished from the 16th century, mainly in Bengal and eastern Orissa, India. It takes its name from the medieval saint Caitanya (Chaitanya; 1485–1533), whose fervent devotion to Lord Krishna (Krsna) inspired the movement. For Caitanya the legends of Krishna and his youthful beloved, Radha, were both symbolic of and the highest expressions

Ramathibodi I

2005-01-30T06:46:00.000-08:00

Little is known of Ramathibodi's early career, but he is thought to have been related to the ruling family of the principality of Lop Buri and to have married the daughter of the ruler of U Thong (now Suphan Buri) in central Siam. He succeeded to the throne of U Thong in about 1347 and moved

Earth

2005-01-30T06:34:00.000-08:00

The mean distance of the Earth from the Sun is approximately 1.5 ´ 108 kilometres. The planet orbits the Sun in a path that is presently more nearly a circle than are the orbits of most other planets. The direction of the Earth's revolution—counterclockwise as viewed down from the north—is in the same sense (direction) as the rotation of the Sun; the Earth's spin, or rotation about

Biblical Literature, Theological and political biases

2005-01-29T11:25:00.000-08:00

Containing two primary sources, the book of Samuel is the result of the editorial skill of the Deuteronomic historians of the post-exilic period. The early source, which is pro-monarchical and may have been written by a single author, is found in I Samuel, chapter 9, verse 1, through chapter 10, verse 16, as well as chapter 11 and most of II Samuel. The chapters just noted were probably

Dwiggins, William Addison

2005-01-28T23:55:00.000-08:00

After studying with Frederic Goudy in Chicago, Dwiggins moved in 1906 to Hingham, Mass., where he earned his living

Ben-gurion, David

2005-01-28T11:08:00.000-08:00

Zionist statesman and political leader, the first prime minister (1948–53, 1955–63) and defense minister (1948–53; 1955–63) of Israel. It was Ben-Gurion who, on May 14, 1948, at Tel Aviv, delivered Israel's declaration of independence. His charismatic personality won him the adoration of the masses, and, after his retirement

Argentina, Andean and sub-Andean zones

2005-01-27T07:18:00.000-08:00

The high-elevation, cold climatic phenomenon in Argentina is sometimes referred to as tundra climate and, in even colder mountaintop

Lenca

2005-01-26T09:55:00.000-08:00

Indians of the northern highlands of Honduras and El Salvador who are somewhat intermediate culturally between the Maya to the north and circum-Caribbean peoples such as the Kuna to the south. The aboriginal culture of the Lenca has virtually disappeared and is not well known. It is thought that formerly each village was autonomous, controlled by a chief and a council

Craig, Edward Gordon

2005-01-25T19:30:00.000-08:00

Craig was the second child of a liaison between the actress Ellen Terry and the architect Edward William Godwin. Like Edith (the other child of his parents), their son was given the name

Cor Caroli

2005-01-25T02:44:00.000-08:00

Also called Alpha Canum Venaticorum, binary star in the constellation Canes Venatici consisting of a brighter component (A) of visual magnitude 2.9 and a companion (B) of magnitude 5.5. It is the prototype for a group of unusual spectrum-variable stars that show strong and fluctuating absorption lines of silicon, chromium, strontium, or certain rare earths. Europium apparently is concentrated around one magnetic

Dependent States

2005-01-24T20:27:00.000-08:00

Puerto Rico's largest bank was fined $21.6 million in January 2003 by the U.S. Department of Justice for allegedly having allowed millions of dollars in drug money to be laundered because of a failure to report suspicious activities to the authorities. The head of the Cayman Islands' Financial Reporting Unit, Brian Gibbs, resigned

Ahriman

2005-01-23T17:29:00.000-08:00

Avestan Angra Mainyu (“Destructive Spirit”) the evil spirit in the dualistic doctrine of Zoroastrianism. His essential nature is expressed in his principal epithet—Druj, “the Lie.” The Lie expresses itself as greed, wrath, and envy. To aid him in attacking the light, the good creation of Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord, Ahriman created a horde of demons embodying envy and similar qualities. Despite the chaos and suffering

Picasso, Pablo, Catalogs

2005-01-23T05:16:00.000-08:00

Catalogs addressing specific themes, often in conjunction with museum exhibitions, include William Rubin (ed.), Pablo Picasso: A Retrospective (1980); Christian Geelhaar et al., Pablo Picasso: Das Spätwerk: Themen 1964–1972 (1981); Douglas Cooper and Gary Tinterow, The Essential Cubism, 1907–1920: Braque, Picasso & Their Friends (1983); Gert Schiff, Picasso: The Last Years, 1963–1973 (1983); Jürgen Glaesemer (ed.), Der Junge Picasso: Frühwerk und blaue Periode (1984); Ellen C. Oppler (ed.), Picasso's Guernica: Illustrations, Introductory Essay, Documents, Poetry, Criticism, Analysis (1988); Herschel B. Chipp, Picasso's Guernica: History, Transformations, Meanings (1988); Réunion des Musées Nationaux, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 2 vol. (1988); Musée National d'Art Moderne and Tate Gallery, Late Picasso: Paintings, Sculpture, Drawings, Prints, 1953–1972 (1988); William Rubin, Picasso and Braque: Pioneering Cubism (1989); William Rubin (ed.), Picasso and Portraiture: Representation and Transformation (1996); Elizabeth Cowling and John Golding, Picasso: Sculptor/Painter (1994); Marilyn McCully (ed.), Picasso: The Early Years, 1892–1906 (1997); Steven A. Nash and Robert Rosenblum (eds.), Picasso and the War Years, 1937–1945 (1998); and Marilyn McCully (ed.), Picasso: Painter and Sculptor in Clay (1998).

Epistemology, Pre-Socratics

2005-01-22T16:39:00.000-08:00

The central focus of ancient Greek philosophy was its attempt to solve the problem of motion. Many pre-Socratic philosophers thought that no logically coherent account of motion and change could be given. This problem was a concern of metaphysics, not epistemology, however, and in the present context it suffices merely to allude to the arguments of Parmenides and

Swains Island

2005-01-21T16:11:00.000-08:00

Coral atoll, American Samoa, southwestern Pacific Ocean, 280 miles (450 km) north of Tutuila. The atoll is 15–25 feet (5–8 m) above sea level; it is circular in shape, with 8 miles (13 km) of shoreline, and encloses a freshwater lagoon. It has an area of about 1 square mile (2.6 square km). Probably first known to Europeans in the 19th century, the atoll was named for a whaling captain. It is not geographically a

Ithaca

2005-01-21T11:11:00.000-08:00

With an area of 37 square miles (96 square km), Ithaca consists of two limestone masses connected by a narrow, peninsula that curves to form the head of a gulf facing the Greek mainland. The island is separated from the island of Cephallenia to the west by

Alexander Iv

2005-01-20T02:22:00.000-08:00

Alexander was appointed cardinal deacon (1227) and cardinal bishop of Ostia (1231) by his uncle Pope Gregory IX. After becoming pope, Alexander followed the policies of his predecessor Innocent IV: he continued war on Manfred, Emperor Frederick II's bastard son (who was crowned king of Sicily in 1258), by excommunicating him and

Gabrieli, Andrea

2005-01-19T14:31:00.000-08:00

Madrigals for three to six voices in various collections; masses in six parts, Primus liber missarum (1572); Magnificat for three choirs; motets; various ricercari and canzoni.